Industries Information

 Syringes utilize a cylinder and plunger for precise delivery of liquids or gases in analytical, medical, pharmaceutical or biotechnology applications.  A syringe is a device used to inject medications or other liquids into body tissues or other media.  A needle is a slender hollow instrument for introducing material into or removing material from the body parenterally.  It is common for syringes to come with needles attached; it is not the rule, however.

The important parameters when specifying syringes are injection method, needle configuration, syringe volume, syringe scale graduations and pressure rating.  Syringes use one of two injections methods, manual or autosampler.  An injector is a mechanism for accurately injecting a predetermined amount of sample.  The injector can be a simple manual device, or a sophisticated autosampler that permits automated injections of many different samples into the liquid stream for unattended operation.  The needle may have one of two configurations if it is supplied with the syringe.  It may either be removable or fixed.  Syringe volume is the amount of sample the syringe can contain prior to injection.  Syringe scale graduations are the markings printed on the side of the scale for measuring the volume dispensed.  The pressure rating is the maximum pressure the syringe can withstand.

The important parameters when specifying needles are needle gauge, length, inner diameter and outer diameter.  When specifying a needle they range from largest to smallest, the larger the needle’s gauge, the smaller the needle. For example, a 4.0 gauge needle is larger (physical size) then an 8.0 gauge needle.  The important dimensions to consider for needles are length, inner diameter and outer diameter.  The outer diameter is dependent upon the gauge, but this is not true of the inner diameter.

Features common to syringes and needles include replacement needles included with the syringe, interchangeable plungers for the syringes, interchangeable barrels for the syringes, digital display and a Chaney adaptor, which provides a convenient method of performing multiple injections of the same volume of fluid without the need for careful reading of the syringe scale each time.

Pipettes and tips are used for accurate liquid handling in many lab applications. This area includes both pipettors, which are complete devices used to deliver a known quantity of solution to a vessel; and pipette tips, through which fluids are dispensed, which are often sold separately from the pipette or pipettor. Pipettes and tips are either of the classical style (glass) or digital.

There are three main types of pipettes and tips: positive displacement, air displacement, and Pasteur styles. Pasteur pipettes are small glass tubes with a bulb at the end used for dispensing small amounts of fluids. Positive displacement pipettes are used for high viscosity and volatile liquids. Both types of pipettes have a piston that moves in a cylinder, or capillary. In air displacement pipetting, a specified volume of air remains between the piston and the liquid. In positive displacement pipetting, the piston is in direct contact with the liquid.

Selecting air displacement pipettes and tips require special consideration. Air displacement pipetting, which is used for standard pipetting applications, is highly accurate. Even so, conditions such as atmospheric pressure, and the specific gravity and viscosity of the solution can have an effect on the performance of air displacement pipettes. Typically, air displacement pipettes are meant for general use with aqueous solutions.

Positive displacement pipettes and tips are used in applications that require extreme accuracy. These pipettes and tips are also recommended for specialized procedures such as DNA amplification. The microsyringe tips used in positive displacement pipettes are disposable, which helps avoid sample-to-sample and cross-contamination, and contamination due to the aerosol effect.  Positive displacement pipettes and tips are also used for high viscosity and volatile liquids.

Dispensers feed measured amounts of sample material into trays, vessels, microplates, or centrifuges, without human contact with the material. These devices may be operated manually, automatically timed, or computer controlled for more complicated projects.  Dispensers are used instead of simply pouring out materials because they are more accurate, help to cut down on waste, and lessen the risk of sample contamination.

The most common types of dispensers are bottle top and burette dispensers.   Bottle top dispensers portion out small volumes of sample from a bottle safely and reliably without contamination or waste.  Pouring introduces the possibility of contamination each time the bottle is opened and invariably leads to waste.  Burette dispensers are used for the volumetric transfer of reagents for titration.  They consist of a calibrated barrel, a delivery tip, and a valve (stopcock).  There are other far less common types of dispensers, but these tend to be designed for proprietary needs.

When determining which of the many dispenser types is best for a given set of applications, or expected uses, there are a number of criteria that should be specified.  It is important to be aware of the level of accuracy that will be needed.  Most dispensers function with a degree of accuracy between .5 to 1.0% of accepted values.  If the dispenser will be used in very sensitive tests, it may be better to tend towards those devices with a higher degree of accuracy.  Similarly, the volumetric increments to which the dispenser is geared will help to gauge its reliability for certain applications.  While milliliters are the most common increment, they are certainly not the only scale.  Additionally, it is important to be aware of the sample capacity of the device.  If the dispenser is going to be used often to produce or maintain reactions, especially in situations where it will not be directly supervised, or the experiment may take place over a period of days, a large capacity dispenser is suggested.

Diluters are used to simplify the process of sample preparation by diluting samples to standard concentrations. Most diluters come pre-programmed with standard (common) dilutions.  Common dilutions for concentrated samples are 1/4, 1/10, 1/25, 1/50, 1/100, 1/250, 1/500, 1/1000 and greater.  By using diluters, samples can be prepared in less time than standard manual methods, such as mixing solutions in a volumetric flask.  Diluters may also be used to make smaller quantities of a solution, when compared with other analytical techniques, such as atomic absorption spectrometry (AA), gas chromatography (GC), and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC); thereby limiting solvent consumption and reducing overall waste and disposal costs.

When selecting between diluters, it is important to take the following specifications into account: accuracy, precision, solvent volume, and sample volume.  Accuracy describes the nearness of a measurement to the standard or true value, i.e., a highly accurate measuring device will provide measurements very close to the standard, true or known values.  Precision is the degree to which several measurements provide answers very close to each other. It is an indicator of the scatter in the data. The lower the scatter, the higher the precision.  Solvent volume is the amount of solvent (the substance that is used to dilute the sample) that the diluter can accept.  Generally, solvent volume needs increase, as concentration of the sample decreases.  Similarly, sample volume is the amount of sample material that diluters are designed to accept.

Once the diluters’ performance specifications are determined, the next step is to determine the display or interface options that best suit the given application.  Diluters are available with local interfaces or computer interfaces.  Local interface diluters should be selected if the device will be used for single batches, occasional operation, or if the sample preparation requires close supervision and alteration.  Local interface options include analog and digital panels for reaction information display and input.  Computer interfaces are appropriate for continuous batching of sample, preparations that require numerous steps, or long reaction times, or in laboratory settings where multiple activities are taking place.  Additionally, computer interfaces are useful if careful data tracking and logging is necessary, as well as remote display of data.

Autosamplers are automated sample loaders, usually robotic, used with chromatography, atomic absorption and other analytical technologies. Autosamplers are designed especially for laboratories that process large numbers of samples on a routine basis. They are used for a variety of tasks, ranging from general HPLC needs up to dedicated solutions for high sample throughput.  Most are designed to interface with PC systems, and some autosamplers can be remotely computer controlled.  Complete remote control of all operational parameters such as injection time, number of injections per vial, rinses, three auxiliary contact closures, and internal injection valve actuation are available by means of optional serial or parallel interfaces.

Autosamplers may use a variety of receptacles to accept sample or reagent injection. These include simple vials, wellplates, or graphite furnace sample cups.  Wellplates, also known as microplates, are plastic plates or cassettes containing a specified number (typically 96 or 384) of small wells arranged in rows.  Researchers commonly use them to conduct numerous chemical reactions at the same time. Graphite furnaces are used in atomic absorption spectroscopy to atomize a sample.  The sample crucible is usually a cup cut from hollow aluminum or magnesia tubing.  Syringes or injector valves are the usual methods used to inject materials into the testing receptacles. Some varieties of autosamplers are specifically configured for one type of receptacle platform, while others can use them interchangeably.

Autosamplers are used in a wide variety of applications.  These can range from analysis of Organic Volatile Impurities (OVIs), plastics, polymers, blood alcohol analysis, and flavors, to semiconductor applications and any ultratrace analysis of commonly occurring elements. Clinical applications including drinking water testing, wastewater analysis and reclamation projects, soil composition, toxicity analysis.  In addition, a range of QA/QC control procedures, such as the EPA protocols, can be automated using the optional Intelligent Sequencing Software.

 Vials are small glass or plastic bottles used for storage.  Depending on supplier they can be supplied in amber or clear glass, plastic, with or without markings and in various configurations of features and sizes.  Vials can be used for media, diagnostic, storage, display and sample collection applications.  Vials have different mouth and cap styles to accommodate different types of applications.  The mouth of a vial can either be a standard size or wide mouth for facilitation of adding and dispensing samples.  The connection type for vials is typically one of five standard types, screw thread, crimp, snap seal, snap ring and RAM for robotics.  A screw thread connection is an external threaded connection.  A crimp style connection is not threaded; a cap would "crimp" on.  A snap seal connection is a special style of crimp that allows a seal to snap on.  A snap ring connection is a special style of crimp that allows a ring to snap on to the vial.  RAM for robotics is a special style of thread designed for robotic applications.

Important parameters to consider when specifying vials are volume, drams, outer diameter and height.  The volume of the vial is the maximum amount of sample that the vial can hold.  A dram is a unit of fluid measurement common to laboratory applications; one dram is about 3.7 mL.  The outer diameter of the vial is important in applications where an autosampler would be used.  The height of the vial is important in applications where an autosampler would be used.

Features important in specifying vials include limited volume inserts, high recovery, shell vial, marking spots, and self-centering springs.  Limited volume inserts are used to limit the volume that the vial can contain.  High recovery vials allow for a maximum amount of the sample to be recovered.  A shell vial is an inexpensive thin walled cylinder.  Marking spots are square or graduated spots to denote volumes.  Self-centering springs allow for re-centering when used with an autosampler.

 Plastic labware and glass labware includes any article made of glass or plastic that is intended for laboratory use, including, but not limited to beakers, bottles, petri dishes, flasks, funnels, jars, tubes and stoppers.

Types of plastic glassware and laboratory glassware covered in this area include: adapters are devices for connecting two parts (as of different diameters) of an apparatus.  A beaker is an unrestricted or simple restricted vessel with high height-to-orifice diameter ratios.  A boiling flask is a container used to distill a liquid.  Another type of boiling flask is a Claisen flask.  A bottle is a rigid or semi-rigid container typically of glass or plastic having a comparatively narrow neck or mouth and usually no handle.  A burette is a graduated glass tube with a small aperture and stopcock for delivering measured quantities of liquid or for measuring the liquid or gas received or discharged.  A column is a tube or cylinder in which a chromatographic separation takes place.  A condenser is an apparatus in which gas or vapor is condensed.  A cylinder is a tall narrow container with a volume scale used especially for measuring liquids.  An Erlenmeyer flask is a flat-bottomed conical laboratory flask.  A funnel is a utensil that is usually a hollow cone with a tube extending from the smaller end and that is designed to catch and direct a downward flow.  A joint is used to join two pieces of tubing.  A petri dish is a small shallow dish of thin glass or plastic with a loose cover used especially for cultures in bacteriology.  A reaction vessel is a vessel that contains a chemical transformation or change.  A separatory funnel is a funnel used for the separation of media.  Stirring rods are a piece of hollow or solid glass tubing used to stir materials or used to spread media on a petri dish.  Stoppers are used to plug the opening of the listed labware.  A test tube is a plain or lipped tube usually of thin glass closed at one end and used especially in chemistry and biology.  Volumetric flasks are used to make up a solution of fixed volume very accurately.  Watch glasses have all kinds of uses. They are concave "dishes" that can be used as beaker lids; to hold protists and other invertebrates for viewing under a microscope; or to dissolve materials such as crystals and powders.  There are also many other unlisted types of labware that can be included.

The most important specification for plastic and glass labware is the volume of the specific piece under consideration.  Plastic labware can be one of many types of plastics.  These include, Ethylene propylene (EPDM), fluoroelastomer (FKM) Neoprene, Nitrile (NBR - Buna-N), Nylon or polyamide, polyethylene (PE), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), polypropylene (PP), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyurethane or urethane, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), and Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF).  Glass labware can one of many types of glasses.  These include fused silica, borosilicate glass, and quartz glass.  Other materials may be available from specific suppliers.

Microplates are small plastic reaction vessels.  Microplates, by design, are trays or cassettes that are covered with wells or dimples arranged in orderly rows.  These wells are used to conduct separate chemical reactions. The large number of wells, which typically number 96 or 384, depending upon the size of the microplate, allow for many different reactions to take place at the same time. This can be useful if the goal is to determine a statistical basis for research results, to test for aberrations in an expected result, or to run a number of unrelated reactions at the same time.  Microplates are ideal for high-throughput screening and research. They allow miniaturization of assays and are suitable for many applications including drug testing, genetic study, and combinatorial chemistry.  

While most microplates are of standard manufacture, specialized microplates are available including clear bottom types, UV treated microplates, fluorescence microplates, and luminescent styles.  Clear bottom microplates are ideal for fluorometric applications as well as cell and tissue culturation.  UV treated microplates are for use with protein and nucleic acid concentrations, and research involving DNA testing or sequencing.  Fluorescence microplates are available with black or white pigments to reduce background signals or enhance reflectivity.  Luminescent vessels provide high reflectivity, medium binding and low cross talk.  Additional designs include microplates that are designed to resist corrosives or solvents.

While some reactions may lead the researcher to discard associated microplates, in general, microplates are designed for reuse.  Specialized microplate washers are available for laboratory and research settings where extensive use of microplates is expected.

Ceramic and metal labware is used in applications where standard glass or plastic devices are inadequate. This includes fusion, reaction, or incineration of samples for chemical analysis or material synthesis. Ceramic labware includes boats, crucibles, trays dishes, and discs. Crucibles are cup-shaped pieces of laboratory equipment used to contain chemical compounds when heating them to very high temperatures. The receptacle is usually made of porcelain or an inert metal. One of the earliest uses of platinum was to make crucibles. More recently, metals such as nickel and zirconium have been used. Crucibles are commonly used with a high temperature-resistant crucible cover (or lid) made of a similar material. Ceramic and metal labware is very important part of a chemical laboratory.

Crucibles, which are the most important ceramic and metal labware, are generally made of metals. A high purity alumina crucible is ideal for high temperature applications. Re-crystallized alumina is used in crucibles because it offers the best thermal shock resistance due to the larger grain size (up to 200mm is advantageous). A platinum crucible allows strong heat to be applied without danger of reaction of the charge with the crucibles. The alternatives are nickel and porcelain crucibles, which are much cheaper but cannot be used at higher temperatures, and react more readily with a charge. Graphite crucibles can be taken to high temperatures without melting, but are reactive and are even consumed through heating in air. A metal crucible is placed into a furnace and, after the liquid is melted, the metal is taken out of the furnace and poured into a mold. Refractory materials retain their strength at high temperatures. They are used to make crucibles and to make refractory linings, which line furnaces, kilns, and incinerators. Refractories must be chosen according to the conditions they will encounter. For example, acidic refractories cannot be used in a basic environment and basic refractories cannot be used in an acidic environment because they get eroded when used improperly. Another important labware is a funnel. A funnel is a conically shaped pipe, employed as a device to channel liquid or fine-grained substances into containers with a small opening. Industrial funnels are usually made of either stainless sheet metal or ceramics. Ceramic and metal labware is manufactured to meet most industry specifications.

Ceramic and metal labware are used in many applications. Examples include their use in chemical analysis and ash content determination. Ceramic and metal labware must be strong at high temperatures, resistant to thermal shock, chemically inert, and have low thermal conductivities and coefficients of expansion.

Biological indicators are used to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of sterilization. They are designed for use with ethylene oxide gas, dry heat, steam or radiation. Ethylene oxide gas is used to kill bacteria, mold and fungi in medical supplies such as bandages and food stuffs such as spices. Dry-heat sterilization uses an oven to raise the temperature of items that are wrapped in foil or fabric. Steam sterilization uses an autoclave, a self-locking machine that sterilizes its contents with steam under pressure. Biological indicators that are suitable for use with gamma and electron beam radiation techniques are also available.

Biological indicators are available in many different forms. Examples include strips, discs, suspensions, test tubes and ampoules. Spore strips are biological indicators that are packaged in a pouch made of glassine, a paper that is resistant to moisture and air at ambient temperatures and pressures. Spore discs are usually made of borosilicate paper or stainless steel. Spore suspensions are diluted aliquots that are derived from a primary batch of spores. Test tubes are available in a variety of sizes and are usually made of expansion-resistant glass. Ampoules are small, self-contained, vials which are hermetically sealed with a flame. They have a score mark around the neck so that the sealed top can be snapped off by hand. Typically, ampoules are used to contain hypodermic injection solutions.

Specifications for biological indicators vary by product form and may carry different certifications. For example, spore strips and spore discs are specified in terms of shelf life, strip size, and package size. Specifications for spore suspensions include quantity, population, culture media, incubation period and temperature. Spore strips, ampoules and suspensions at common population levels are often provided with multiple certifications that include D value confirmation, survival/kill analysis and population verification. Biological indicators that meet US Pharmacopoeia (USP) standards are also available.