Industries Information

 Vials are small glass or plastic bottles used for storage.  Depending on supplier they can be supplied in amber or clear glass, plastic, with or without markings and in various configurations of features and sizes.  Vials can be used for media, diagnostic, storage, display and sample collection applications.  Vials have different mouth and cap styles to accommodate different types of applications.  The mouth of a vial can either be a standard size or wide mouth for facilitation of adding and dispensing samples.  The connection type for vials is typically one of five standard types, screw thread, crimp, snap seal, snap ring and RAM for robotics.  A screw thread connection is an external threaded connection.  A crimp style connection is not threaded; a cap would "crimp" on.  A snap seal connection is a special style of crimp that allows a seal to snap on.  A snap ring connection is a special style of crimp that allows a ring to snap on to the vial.  RAM for robotics is a special style of thread designed for robotic applications.

Important parameters to consider when specifying vials are volume, drams, outer diameter and height.  The volume of the vial is the maximum amount of sample that the vial can hold.  A dram is a unit of fluid measurement common to laboratory applications; one dram is about 3.7 mL.  The outer diameter of the vial is important in applications where an autosampler would be used.  The height of the vial is important in applications where an autosampler would be used.

Features important in specifying vials include limited volume inserts, high recovery, shell vial, marking spots, and self-centering springs.  Limited volume inserts are used to limit the volume that the vial can contain.  High recovery vials allow for a maximum amount of the sample to be recovered.  A shell vial is an inexpensive thin walled cylinder.  Marking spots are square or graduated spots to denote volumes.  Self-centering springs allow for re-centering when used with an autosampler.

Titration instruments are used to determine the concentration of dissolved substances. Titration is based on a complete chemical reaction between the analyte and a reagent or titrant of known concentration that is added to the sample. The analyte is the substance which a laboratory test is designed to measure. The reagent or titrant is the substance that produces a chemical reaction in order to determine the presence of the analyte. There are two basic titration methods: manual and automatic. Manual titration is performed with a burette, a piece of laboratory glassware that has volumetric graduations along its length and a tap or stopcock on its bottom. Automatic titration is performed with an auto-titrator, an electrically-powered laboratory instrument that can be interfaced to a personal computer (PC). Typically, automatic titration instruments are used for repetitive titrations.

Titration instruments differ in terms of addition and indication methods. There are two titrant addition methods: volumetric and coulometric. Volumetric devices add the titrant directly to the sample. Coulometric devices generate the titrant electromechanically. There are many different titration indication methods. Voltametry, a technique also known as the Karl Fischer water determination method, measures the concentration-dependent potential of a solution against a reference potential. Potentiometry, redox and precipitation measure the potential at a constant electric current. Photometry, complexometry, and turbidimetry measure the light transmission of a colored or turbid solution with a photometric sensor. With amperometry, the current flowing in a sample is measured at a constant potential. Titration instruments that measure conductivity include a conductivity meter while devices that measure temperature include a sensor.

Selecting titration instruments requires an analysis of product specifications, features, display types, and computer interfaces. Product specifications for titration instruments include concentration range and reaction time. Some instruments provide data storage and temperature-compensation features. Others measure solids or gases. In terms of display types, titration instruments with analog or digital front panels are commonly available. Analog user inputs include potentiometers, dials and switches. Digital front panels can be setup or programmed using a digital keypad or menus. Titration instruments that can be controlled or monitored via a computer interface use serial or parallel communications and may include application software. RS232, RS485 and universal serial bus (USB) are common serial interfaces. The general-purpose interface bus (GPIB) is a common parallel interface.

Thermal cyclers are laboratory instruments capable of generating and maintaining specific temperatures for a defined period of time.  Specific devices are similar to either batch heaters or chillers in that they heat or cool only.  Unlike large-scale batch heaters or chillers, thermal cyclers are designed to handle a small number of microplates (usually one or two), allowing for uniform temperature maintenance across all samples.  As with all devices used with microplates, thermal cyclers are designed to handle either of the microplate sizes (typically 96 or 384); although some varieties can handle both.

Thermal cyclers use a number of different technologies to effect temperature change.  The most types include Peltier cooling, resistance heating, and passive air or water heating.

The Peltier effect is used in many applications for the reliable cooling of sensitive high-temperature components without the need for refrigerants or compressors. Otherwise known as thermoelectric coolers, peltiers are special types of semiconductor that function as a solid-state heat pump. By applying a low voltage DC power source to one side, heat will be moved in the direction of the current (+ to -). The heat is thus pumped from one side of the module to the other, so that one face will be cold while the opposite face will be heated.

Resistive heating energy is applied to the sample through the walls of the thermal cycler.  A resistive heating element is simply a coiled wire, very similar to the filament of a light bulb or the element in an electric toaster that gets hot when electricity is passed through it.  The heating element presses directly against the sides thermal cyclers and conductive grease makes sure that heat transfers efficiently.

Passive air or water thermal cyclers do not contain heating elements.  Water or air is heated outside the thermal cycler and then added to the instrument to heat the sample.

 Syringes utilize a cylinder and plunger for precise delivery of liquids or gases in analytical, medical, pharmaceutical or biotechnology applications.  A syringe is a device used to inject medications or other liquids into body tissues or other media.  A needle is a slender hollow instrument for introducing material into or removing material from the body parenterally.  It is common for syringes to come with needles attached; it is not the rule, however.

The important parameters when specifying syringes are injection method, needle configuration, syringe volume, syringe scale graduations and pressure rating.  Syringes use one of two injections methods, manual or autosampler.  An injector is a mechanism for accurately injecting a predetermined amount of sample.  The injector can be a simple manual device, or a sophisticated autosampler that permits automated injections of many different samples into the liquid stream for unattended operation.  The needle may have one of two configurations if it is supplied with the syringe.  It may either be removable or fixed.  Syringe volume is the amount of sample the syringe can contain prior to injection.  Syringe scale graduations are the markings printed on the side of the scale for measuring the volume dispensed.  The pressure rating is the maximum pressure the syringe can withstand.

The important parameters when specifying needles are needle gauge, length, inner diameter and outer diameter.  When specifying a needle they range from largest to smallest, the larger the needle’s gauge, the smaller the needle. For example, a 4.0 gauge needle is larger (physical size) then an 8.0 gauge needle.  The important dimensions to consider for needles are length, inner diameter and outer diameter.  The outer diameter is dependent upon the gauge, but this is not true of the inner diameter.

Features common to syringes and needles include replacement needles included with the syringe, interchangeable plungers for the syringes, interchangeable barrels for the syringes, digital display and a Chaney adaptor, which provides a convenient method of performing multiple injections of the same volume of fluid without the need for careful reading of the syringe scale each time.

Specialty labware includes proprietary products and accessories related to labware or laboratory equipment. Specialty labware includes disposable plastic products, inert polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) or Teflon products, and a variety of Petri dishes, funnels, beakers, and flasks. Teflon is a registered trademark of DuPont. Specialty labware is used in all kinds of applications, from clinical laboratories to chemical and biological research and development facilities.

Specialty labware consists of laboratory containers made of special materials. Specialty labware may need to be inert or resistant to electrostatic discharge, corrosion and reaction resistant, as well as durable and colorfast. Specialty labware includes plastic labware and glass labware, and labware composed of certain polymers or polycarbonates. Nalgene labware is composed of a special plastic and is used by chemists and biologists because it is lightweight and shatterproof, making it a good alternative to clinical and research labware composed of glass. Glass labware includes traditional products that are transparent, relatively strong, and resistant to many chemical reactions. Plastic labware is often used in school science laboratories because it is safe and inexpensive to replace. Specialty labware includes graduated cylinders for measuring liquids, magnetic spin bars for stirring solutions, Erlenmeyer and volumetric flasks, and nylon or polymeric bags.

Specialty labware includes platinum labware for use in experiments that require high temperatures or harsh chemical processes. Platinum labware is chemically inert and can include crucibles, tongs, electrodes, and special evaporation dishes. Specialty labware for preparing specimens includes lab plates and slides, or Petri dishes for culturing bacterial cultures. Lab cultures are typically contained in Petri dishes that have a layer of nutrient, such as agar, to feed the growing bacteria. Specialty labware may also include prepared plates, slides, and cultures available from scientific supply houses.

Specialty labware suppliers adhere to regulatory requirements and voluntary quality standards. ISO 9001 specifies the requirements for a quality management system for overseeing the production of a product or service.

Scintillation detectors and luminescence counters are used to detect gamma, X-ray and neutron radiation. They consist of a detector for sensing incident radiation and a photomultiplier for producing countable pulses. Gamma radiation detectors are used to detect high-energy, short wavelength electromagnetic radiation of nuclear origin. X-ray radiation detectors detect X-rays, electromagnetic radiation that is similar to light but much higher in energy and frequency. Neutron radiation detectors are used to detect free neutrons that are emitted during nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, or other reactions in which a nucleus absorbs and alpha particle and emits a neutron. All three types of scintillation detectors and luminescence counters are used in a variety of applications, from medical imaging applications to dark matter detectors. They are also used aboard spacecraft to observe and measure sources of cosmic background radiation.

Scintillation detectors and luminescence counters consist of various components, the most important of which is the scintillator crystal. As a rule, these scintillator crystals emit low-energy photons when they are struck by the high-energy particles of a gamma-ray. The low-energy photons are collected by the photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) of the luminescence counter to determine the energy of the gamma ray radiation. The scintillator crystal used in a scintillation detector may be made from a variety of materials, depending upon the application. For use in a gamma-ray detector, the crystals are typically made of inorganic materials such as sodium iodide or cesium iodide with the addition of an activator or impurity such as thallium. Note that electroluminescence detectors are also used to detect gamma rays, and typically use pressurized xenon to detect the scintillation signals. Other types of scintillation detectors and luminescence counters are also available.

Scintillation detectors and luminescence counters include liquid detectors, devices which count flashes of luminescence that result from the interaction of the radiation with a liquid. Liquid-based scintillation detectors and luminescence counters involve a liquid medium rather than a scintillator crystal. A liquid detector is useful for detecting low energy emissions. Liquid detectors typically use two luminescence detectors that are positioned in opposition to each other. Each luminescence detector has a view of the flask or vial containing the liquid scintillator. When the liquid scintillator emits radiation, both luminescence detectors must detect the light for the count to be tallied. Liquid detectors may also be used for medical imaging applications such as positron emission tomography.

Sample dryers are used to remove liquids from a sample through techniques such as freeze drying, spray drying, and evaporation. Drying or dehydration is a mass transfer process that causes the removal of water. There are many types of sample dryers. Examples include freeze dryers and spray dryers. A spray dryer consists of a feed pump, atomizer, air heater, air disperser, drying chamber, and systems for exhaust air cleaning and powder recovery. Spray drying is the process of mixing and drying slurry to form a homogeneous mixture of powders. The powders are mixed with a solvent, and then the mixture is sprayed into the air, so that the solvent evaporates leaving the mixed powders. By contrast, a freeze dryer freezes the material and then reduces the surrounding pressure. Freeze drying allows the frozen water in the material to sublimate directly from the solid phase to gas.

Selecting sample dryers requires an analysis of performance specifications and application requirements. Some sample dryers use a two-stage process which drops the sample’s temperature twice, removing moisture in two individual trap assemblies. Drying can also be done by using evaporators to apply of dry, heated air. This causes the evaporation of surface water, which is replaced by water internally. The process of extreme drying is called desiccation. Desiccators create a dry environment with electronically controlled storage. Lyophilization technology uses the principle of freeze drying in preserving a perishable material. Operating conditions and sample dryer design are selected according to the drying characteristics of the product and powder specification.

Sample dryers are designed and manufactured to meet most industry specifications. They are used in many applications. Examples include pharmaceuticals, chemical synthesis, food preservation, semiconductor wafers, and obtaining absolute alcohol. Sample dryers should adhere to various food processing standards specified by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

Respirometers are used for the quantification of respiration in humans or other organisms through measurements of oxygen, water and/or carbon dioxide levels, and mass flow rate. Simple respirometers consist of a sealed container along with the organism being tested, and a substance such as soda lime pellets to soak up the carbon dioxide given off. Oxygen uptake rates are calculated by the displacement of fluid in a glass tube connected to the sealed container.

Respirometers include devices for measuring and analyzing oxygen or carbon dioxide levels. Oxygen respirometers are used to measure aerobic respiration - respiration which requires the presence of oxygen - in plants, small animals and birds, fruit, and soil. Carbon dioxide respirometers are also used to measure anaerobic respiration - respiration which does not require the presence of oxygen - in plants and plant-based products, small animals, insects, and bacterial cultures. In addition, respirometers are used to monitor the exchange of gases that occur in photosynthesis. Both oxygen respiration instruments and carbon dioxide respiration instruments use a mass flow meter or mass flow controller to monitor the flow of gases through a series of valves.

Respirometers are used to monitor both aerobic and anaerobic processes. A respirometer may be used to monitor the biodegradation reactions that take place during the microbial breakdown or hydrocarbons or plastics. For example, specific microbes are used to clean up oil spills. A respirometer designed to measure the level of anaerobic gas can monitor the remediation process. Aerobic testing is also done in remediation applications and includes monitoring the quality of treated wastewater. Aerobic biodegradation occurs when aerobic bacteria are used to break down organic contaminants into smaller compounds. Respirometers used in remediation applications may also measure oxygen uptake rates as well as the toxicity of the remaining compounds in the sludge or wastewater.

Reactors (or bioreactors or fermenters as they are often called) are at the heart of the fermentation process. They are used for growing cells. Reactors are designed to meet the specific needs of the cells namely: optimal mixing, optimal temperature and optimal pH. In some cases, reactors continuously supply nutrients or precursors to produce a particular product. Bioreactors are often computer controlled to ensure that optimal conditions are met.

Reactors are available in a number of designs including bubble column, airlift, flocculated bed, fluidized bed, packed bed, and stirred tank.  Bubble column reactors are tall reactors, which use air alone to mix the contents. Airlift reactors are similar to bubble column reactors, but differ in that they contain a draft tube. The draft tube is typically an inner tube, which improves circulation and oxygen transfer and equalizes shear forces in the reactor.

Flocculated cell reactors retain cells by allowing them to flocculate. These reactors are used mainly in wastewater treatment. In fluidized bed reactors, cells are "immobilized" small particles, which move with the fluid. The small particles create a large surface area for cells to stick to and enable a high rate of transfer of oxygen and nutrients to the cells. In packed bed reactors, cells are immobilized on large particles. These particles do not move with the liquid. Packed bed reactors are simple to construct and operate but can suffer from blockages and from poor oxygen transfer.

Stirred tank reactors use mechanical stirrers (impellers) to mix the reactor to distribute heat and materials (such as oxygen and substrates).

Reactors use different measurement scales to read the reactions taking place.  From smallest to largest they are laboratory scale, pilot scale, and production or industrial scale. The laboratory scale is used for small-scale experiments of kinetics and yield studies.  They are primarily shake flasks and small bioreactors.  This scale is used to complete a preliminary economic evaluation of experiments. Pilot scale reactors are usually in the range of 100 to 1,000 liters and are utilized in kinetic and mass transfer studies.  They are used for economic evaluations, scale-up studies and downstream processing.  Reactors using the industrial scale are for commercial production applications in the range of 1,000 to 1,000,000 liters.  Their uses include commissioning, troubleshooting, improvement and optimization.

Plastic labware and glass labware includes any article made of glass or plastic that is intended for laboratory use, including, but not limited to beakers, bottles, petri dishes, flasks, funnels, jars, tubes and stoppers.

Types of plastic glassware and laboratory glassware covered in this area include: adapters are devices for connecting two parts (as of different diameters) of an apparatus.  A beaker is an unrestricted or simple restricted vessel with high height-to-orifice diameter ratios.  A boiling flask is a container used to distill a liquid.  Another type of boiling flask is a Claisen flask.  A bottle is a rigid or semi-rigid container typically of glass or plastic having a comparatively narrow neck or mouth and usually no handle.  A burette is a graduated glass tube with a small aperture and stopcock for delivering measured quantities of liquid or for measuring the liquid or gas received or discharged.  A column is a tube or cylinder in which a chromatographic separation takes place.  A condenser is an apparatus in which gas or vapor is condensed.  A cylinder is a tall narrow container with a volume scale used especially for measuring liquids.  An Erlenmeyer flask is a flat-bottomed conical laboratory flask.  A funnel is a utensil that is usually a hollow cone with a tube extending from the smaller end and that is designed to catch and direct a downward flow.  A joint is used to join two pieces of tubing.  A petri dish is a small shallow dish of thin glass or plastic with a loose cover used especially for cultures in bacteriology.  A reaction vessel is a vessel that contains a chemical transformation or change.  A separatory funnel is a funnel used for the separation of media.  Stirring rods are a piece of hollow or solid glass tubing used to stir materials or used to spread media on a petri dish.  Stoppers are used to plug the opening of the listed labware.  A test tube is a plain or lipped tube usually of thin glass closed at one end and used especially in chemistry and biology.  Volumetric flasks are used to make up a solution of fixed volume very accurately.  Watch glasses have all kinds of uses. They are concave "dishes" that can be used as beaker lids; to hold protists and other invertebrates for viewing under a microscope; or to dissolve materials such as crystals and powders.  There are also many other unlisted types of labware that can be included.

The most important specification for plastic and glass labware is the volume of the specific piece under consideration.  Plastic labware can be one of many types of plastics.  These include, Ethylene propylene (EPDM), fluoroelastomer (FKM) Neoprene, Nitrile (NBR - Buna-N), Nylon or polyamide, polyethylene (PE), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), polypropylene (PP), Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyurethane or urethane, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), and Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF).  Glass labware can one of many types of glasses.  These include fused silica, borosilicate glass, and quartz glass.  Other materials may be available from specific suppliers.